Probing into the Effects of Teacher Support on EFL Learners' Self-esteem, Resilience, Academic Enjoyment, and Academic Achievement

An essential factor for successful self-realization in life is academic accomplishment, which plays a vital role in adolescent development (Choe, 2020; Lerner & Steinberg, 2009). Nevertheless, a significant number of students might fail to meet this goal. One of the main challenges for academics is to understand the elements that affect academic performance, including the acquisition of knowledge and development of skills in an educational setting, as well as the ability to execute assignments or projects with high-quality results (Nurad & Abdullah, 2016). To address the difficulties encountered by students and achieve the desired academic results, it is essential to analyze the impact of teacher support (TS) on the educational process. TS refers to the teacher’s guidance, encouragement, and assistance to foster students' academic growth and emotional well-being. It goes beyond imparting knowledge and entails creating a nurturing atmosphere that can greatly improve student learning results. This type of assistance not only helps with the practical parts of education and the smoothness of classroom processes but also has a crucial impact on addressing the emotional and psychological requirements of students, hence improving their overall academic and personal growth.

According to Chi et al. (2018), educators are vital in affecting students' academic achievement, and a favorable classroom atmosphere augments the efficacy of learning, especially in educational settings with students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Filippello et al. (2020) supported this remark with research from the Italian context. They found that perceived psychological control and the development of learned helplessness in students have a negative impact on their academic achievement. On the other hand, when teachers are viewed as providing autonomy support, it encourages students to adopt a mastery orientation, which has a favorable effect on their academic achievements. Providing such assistance is crucial for meeting important psychological requirements, which are vital for the development of students, as suggested by the self-determination theory (SDT). This theory states optimal learning outcomes happen when educational settings address these needs. Based on SDT, the satisfaction of three essential requirements—competence, relatedness, and autonomy—should be ensured in an optimal learning situation (Ryan & Deci, 2017; Deci & Ryan, 1985). These requirements are essential for cultivating intrinsic motivation among students, encouraging them to actively participate in the learning content and persevere through difficulties, ultimately resulting in enhanced educational achievement. Autonomy support, structure, and involvement are three strategies educators can use to help students do this (Affuso et al., 2023). These strategies provide a supportive atmosphere for learning that promotes student success. Teachers overseeing activities, structuring feedback, and offering constructive criticism improve students' perceptions of competence. Teachers can increase their students' impression of autonomy by motivating and involving them in academic tasks. Finally, by being involved, teachers provide their relationships with students' time, resources, and affection, meeting the latter's demand for connection (Kurdi et al., 2018).

Self-esteem is an individual's subjective assessment of their worth and competence based on self-perceptions, social comparisons, and self-attributions. It has a fundamental part in shaping overall psychological and social well-being. According to Rosenberg (1989),
self-esteem is an assessment of one's self-concept based on evaluations of social comparison, suitability, and self-attribution. It is a subjective assessment of one's feelings and thoughts (Rosenberg, 1965). In this way, self-esteem may be considered a schema through which all external stimuli can positively or negatively impact one's behavior and mood (van Tuijl et al., 2018). As a result, self-esteem is essential for general healthy progress and affects main life results like improved social connections, proper coping mechanisms, high academic performance, and physical health (Nguyen et al., 2019).

Adapting and managing when encountering difficulty is the general definition of resilience (Stoffel & Cain, 2018). Resilience is a comprehensive set of protecting characteristics with ideas, attitudes, and actions that are manifested as a person's responses to adversity and stress and involve bouncing back, transformation, and personal growth (American Psychological Association, 2020). It is developed via life experience and education (Earvolino-Ramirez, 2007; Namaziandost et al., 2023). In student sample studies, resilience is a sign of good well-being and psychological health related to learning and academic achievement (Bittman, 2021).

School enjoyment is described as pleasant sentiments about participating in school (Ainley & Hidi, 2014) and is a form of positive influence associated with curiosity, interest, and learning (Litman & Spielberger, 2003; Lamnina & Chase, 2019; Pekrun et al., 2011). According to Build Theory and Fredrickson's Broaden and Build Theory (Fredrickson, 1998), positive effects on learning—such as love of school—can trigger the development of broader cognitive capacity, promoting additional positive impact in the future. As positive emotions and cognitive development are highlighted by these theories, it is observable that young children start school with positive attitudes about learning (Nurmi & Aunola, 2005; Howse
et al., 2003), which can enhance their cognitive and emotional development.

Academic achievement is a fundamental pillar in education, embodying the culmination of knowledge, skills, and endeavors that students invest in their pursuit of learning (Kargar Behbahani & Khademi, 2022). Its significance transcends individual accomplishments, forming the bedrock of educational institutions and society (Xu et al., 2023). In an era marked by unprecedented technological advances, evolving pedagogical paradigms, and a diverse student demographic, the concept of academic achievement is undergoing a profound transformation (Dewaele et al., 2023). That said, the culmination of students' knowledge, skills, and effort invested in their educational journey, with outcomes that include successful task completion, knowledge acquisition, and skill development, is defined as academic achievement. As students encounter the complexities of education in today’s world, incorporating enjoyment into the learning process may enhance their educational experience, making it more engaging and effective. Experiencing enjoyment in academic environments not only increases motivation and active engagement but also plays a vital role in reducing the stress and difficulties that are related to demanding academic requirements (Shernoff, 2013). Hence, it is crucial to cultivate a setting in which enjoyment is a fundamental element of the educational process to optimize academic achievement.

In addition, academic achievement is a pivotal milestone in students' educational journey, shaping their prospects and contributing to societal advancement (Dewaele et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2023). However, regardless of its importance, many students, particularly EFL learners, struggle to attain the desired levels of academic success. This challenge has prompted a pressing need to investigate the factors influencing EFL learners' academic achievement. Of particular interest is the part of TS in fostering positive outcomes regarding self-esteem, resilience, AE, and, ultimately, academic achievement. There is a critical gap in understanding the interaction between TS and these crucial facets of students' academic lives within the context of EFL learning. To address this gap, this study tries to probe into TS effects on EFL learners' self-esteem, resilience, AE, and academic achievement, helping to fully comprehend the dynamics that shape educational success for EFL learners in today's diverse and evolving educational landscape.

In EFL settings, where learners often struggle with language barriers and distinctive problems, understanding the role of TS becomes paramount. EFL learners face the daunting task of acquiring a new language, often in non-native environments, which various psychological and academic hurdles can accompany. This study delves into the relationship between TS and key psychological variables, including resilience, self-esteem, AE, and language accomplishment amongst EFL students. This illuminates how TS can address these challenges in the EFL learning journey.

More importantly, educators have a crucial role in shaping their students' academic achievement, which is a fundamental aspect of education. The SDT underscores the importance of fulfilling basic needs like competence, autonomy, and relatedness in learning. TS, including structure, autonomy support, and involvement, can contribute to this process. Self-esteem, resilience, and AE are critical facets of academic achievement. For EFL learners, the challenges can be even more significant. Overcoming obstacles such as limited language skills and cultural disparities, these hurdles can be particularly substantial. Efficient teaching strategies can help close these disparities by establishing an educational environment that fosters comprehension and proficiency in the target language while simultaneously addressing the emotional and psychological well-being of the learners. In EFL contexts, since learning a new language is complex and requires learners to receive assistance and support to develop confidence and resilience, a holistic approach to teaching it is essential.

Literature Review

Teacher Support

TS encompasses two distinct dimensions: self-determination and social support. Students perceive it when they sense their teacher's cognitive, emotional, or autonomy-focused assistance during the learning journey (Skinner et al., 2008; Skinner & Belmont, 1993). This approach recognizes that individuals engage in tasks and activities based on their beliefs, interests, and passions. However, these motivations can be influenced by others in their immediate environment, altering their emotional and motivational states (Ryan & Deci, 2000). The teacher's ability to offer students choice, relevance, or respect supports autonomy in a learning environment. As defined by Skinner et al. (2008), involvement comprises warmth, affection, resource dedication, learner comprehension, or reliability. Research using the concept of TS presents that it can significantly affect students' feelings of hope, depression, and anxiety (Chiu et al., 2023; Korlat et al., 2021; Reddy et al., 2003; Van Ryzin et al., 2009; Skinner et al., 2008), thereby influencing their overall well-being.

The social support paradigm allows for two perspectives on TS: broad and narrow. In a broad sense, TS is defined as providing a teacher’s instrumental, informational, appraisal, and emotional assistance to a learner in various situations (Kerres et al., 2002; Tardy, 1985).
This definition resonates with Tardy's (1985) social support paradigm. In a narrow sense,
TS may be directed towards a particular form of support, such as only providing academic support by providing more information or feedback (Malecki & Elliott, 1999) or offering emotional guidance, thus narrowing the perspective of the teacher's position. The narrow viewpoint only sees TS as assistance, trust, friendliness, and interest in the context of the classroom (Aldridge et al., 2012; Fraser, 1998).

Teacher assistance improves the interaction between a student and a teacher. Teachers who encourage their students specifically demonstrate their care and concern for them, and as a result, these students frequently express their appreciation for the teachers by upholding classroom rules (Longobardi et al., 2016; Chiu & Chow, 2011). Students often display less respect for their educators and engage in less supportive class activities when teachers yell at them, point the finger at them, or harshly reprimand them (Miller et al., 2000).

Self-esteem

As one of the psychological factors in education that has the most significant consideration, self-esteem is described as the amount of worth or value a person places on themselves as a unique individual (Rosenberg, 1965; Harter, 1999; Kavanagh et al., 2023; Morin & Racy, 2021). Musitu et al. (1988) considered self-esteem as a value and evaluative characteristic of the behaviors and cognitions exhibited in the degree of personal gratification. The level can be categorized as inflated, high, or low self-esteem (Piff, 2014).

People with high self-esteem always think they are superior to others and deliberately overestimate their skills. However, those with high self-esteem are more likely to accept and appreciate themselves because they believe in their abilities. People who have low self-esteem, on the other hand, do not believe in themselves or their capacity to complete a task. As a result, they perform poorly and are under a great deal of stress. Rosenberg et al. (1995) also categorized self-esteem into global and specific. Specific self-esteem pertains to one area of an individual's life, whereas global self-esteem encompasses an overall sense of worth across several regions.

Various connected notions, such as self-efficacy, self-concept, self-worth,
self-competence, and self-confidence, have been suggested and employed interchangeably with or as alternatives to self-esteem. Despite their apparent similarity, they each have distinct meanings and reasons for concern. Self-concept is a person's general perception of themselves and their capabilities (Jordan, 2020). In contrast, self-efficacy is the assurance that they will effectively complete a task (Bandura, 1997). Self-worth is one's optimistic effects on oneself, whereas self-competence concerns one's skill beliefs in broad academic subjects (Bogee, 1998). These interconnected but distinct concepts are acknowledged to have positive self-perception in research, highlighting individual well-being.

Resilience

Although a comprehensive definition is still challenging, resilience is widely understood to entail adversity and constructive adaptation (Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000). It is, thus, characterized as the capacity to demonstrate positive adjustment even in the face of substantial hardship or trauma (Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000). The ability to adjust favorably to pressures can also be described as a trait of resilience (Fletcher & Sarkar, 2012).

In the academic setting, resilience is a crucial motivational-affective component. Recent research has focused on unique psychological ideas to lessen motivational factors in language acquisition and alter L2 learning behavior. As a result, academic resilience has attracted fresh interest in international education (Kim & Kim, 2021). According to Morales and Trotman (2004), academic resilience is the ability to succeed academically despite obstacles and adversities. According to them, academic resilience is a dynamic process that helps academically successful people overcome barriers that prevent their classmates from succeeding. As a result, academic resilience is understood to be both a motivator for achieving academic and personal goals and a source of effective coping mechanisms for tension and stress in a university setting (Cassidy, 2016).

Knight (2007) suggested that pointing out the shortcomings of students in facing problems and striving to find solutions is insufficient in educational environments. He stated that resilience researchers have fundamentally changed their approaches by developing people's strengths and attempting to understand the mechanisms influencing learners' resilience to adverse life events. As a multifaceted and dynamic process, resilience is affected by personal behaviors and psychological and sociocultural contexts (Krovetz, 2008). As a result, it is the responsibility of schools and institutions to help students grow in their capacities and resilience (Thomsen, 2002).

Academic Enjoyment

According to Csikszentmihalyi (2008), AE is a complicated emotion that includes several aspects of difficulty and perceived abilities. These aspects all represent people's desire to succeed when they are put through challenging situations. According to Pekrun et al. (2007), it is considered a sense of achievement that comes from finishing a demanding activity that motivates additional research. It is also characterized by successful performance, enduring tenacity, and enthusiasm (Ainley & Hidi, 2014; Yang et al., 2023). It constitutes a vital element of the flow experience, promoting active engagement and immersion in challenging tasks at an optimal level. It occurs when individuals fulfill their needs while surpassing their expectations, accomplishing something unforeseen or beyond imagination (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008).

The Broaden-and-Build Idea Theory (Fredrickson, 2001) states that a positive emotion like AE aids in expanding experience and acquiring adaptive knowledge. It makes sense to assume that students will enjoy themselves when given a specific amount of freedom in exchange, receive praise from teachers, or engage in demanding and imaginative activities (Dewaele & Mackintyre, 2014).

Li et al. (2018) defined AE as the positive emotions that result from pushing oneself over one's homeostatic boundaries and achieving something novel or unexpected, particularly when facing challenging activities. In L2 learning, Lee (2022) defined it as the pleasurable emotion experienced by learners when they grasp something new about the target language. Boudreau et al. (2018) claim that language learners' AE in classroom settings keeps them interested in their studies. Li (2020) also argued that students who love learning a foreign or second language typically achieve more favorable results. The author highlighted the significance of promoting positive emotions, such as enjoyment, in language education. This supports the idea that AE improves learning outcomes and enhances students’ overall well-being by enriching their emotional experiences in a foreign language classroom.

Academic and Language Achievement

Language achievement is a multifaceted and complex concept that mirrors an individual's competence and proficiency in a particular language (Darmuki et al., 2023; Kargar Behbahani & Razmjoo, 2023). It includes comprehending, applying, and communicating orally and in writing, beyond basic grammar and vocabulary knowledge. This accomplishment process is dynamic and influenced by several elements, including exposure to the language, the system of formal education, learner motivation, and personal learning preferences (Ma, 2022). It symbolizes a continuing path of growth, wherein individuals attempt to strengthen their language abilities via focused practice, immersion in genuine language circumstances, and active involvement within language communities (Wang, 2022).

Language assessment on achievement is a complex process that uses various assessment techniques (Fang et al., 2021). These techniques, which, when combined, offer a thorough evaluation of students' language ability, comprise communication activities, performance evaluations, and standardized language proficiency exams. While communicative activities and performance assessments provide insight into learners' ability to apply language in real-world contexts and communicate effectively, standardized assessments offer an organized and objective way to evaluate language competency across various aspects. By integrating different assessment tools, researchers and educators may comprehensively understand language learners' achievement and the effectiveness of language training methods (Younas et al., 2022).

Empirical Studies

Yuan et al. (2023) explored the connections between self-esteem, perceived social support, and social integration in visually impaired adolescents over a year with 170 participants from specialized institutions in China. They revealed a reciprocal positive relationship between parental support and self-esteem. Notably, self-esteem at Time 1 (T1) predicted support from teachers, classmates, and close friends at Time 2 (T2). Additionally, T1 social integration positively influenced close-friend support at T2.

In another research, Peng and Dai (2023) sought to elucidate how social support impacts the social adaptation of Chinese left-behind teenagers. They examined the direct influence of social support and aimed to determine the mediating role of self-esteem in the social adaptation of left-behind children. Data was collected from 983 students across grades 4 to 9 in a rural China region. The research revealed that left-behind children exhibited significantly lower levels of support-seeking behavior, subjective support, social adaptation, and self-esteem than non-left-behind peers. Furthermore, it was observed that social support exerted a significant and positive influence on the social adaptation of left-behind ones, with self-esteem partially mediating the association between social adaptation and social support.

Pitzer and Skinner (2017) investigated key factors influencing motivational resilience and academic performance. They examined personal factors, interpersonal resources, and emotional responsiveness with a massive group of students (n=1020) in Grades 3 to 6 over a school year and showed a strong fit. TS emerged as pivotal: it bridged academic gaps, bringing initially vulnerable students to par with low-risk peers. Conversely, limited TS initially led resilient students to end the year at risk.

Moreover, Guo et al. (2020) delved into TS's impact on adolescent mental well-being, investigating various facets. They examined whether negative emotions mediate this relationship, explored resilience's potential mediating role, and considered serial and parallel mediating effects. The study involved 1228 Chinese teenagers who answered questionnaires on mental well-being, TS, resilience, and negative emotions. After adjusting for gender and age, the results highlighted significant connections among mental well-being, TS, resilience, and negative emotions. Negative resilience and emotions served as mediators, collectively explaining 5.45% and 30% of the overall effect. TS enhanced mental well-being by initially reducing negative emotions and subsequently enhancing resilience. This serial mediating effect explained 8.48% of the total effect. More importantly, resilience's mediating role was more substantial than the other two pathways. The equivalent mediation model suggested that TS can boost mental well-being by promoting affect control, goal planning, and help-seeking while mitigating depression.

Ma et al. (2021) studied how students' insights of TS were connection-mediated by reading self-concept, reading literacy, and AE. Their analyses depicted that, at the student level, TS significantly influenced reading literacy through a sequential mediation process: first through reading self-concept and then through reading enjoyment. This effect was consistent across both student and school levels, even after considering socioeconomic status and gender. These findings underscored TS's importance in enhancing students' learning outcomes.

Hejazi and Sadoughi (2023) explored the impacts of perceived TS and learning enjoyment on EFL learners' L2 grit. The sample consisted of 339 EFL students. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed that perceived TS significantly and directly predicted L2 grit, underscoring the fundamental role of instructors in supporting and motivating learners to invest substantial effort and enhance their interest and persistence in language learning. Moreover, learning enjoyment acted as a mediator between perceived TS and L2 grit, signifying its potential to boost students' cognitive resources and sustain their interest and efforts in the challenging process of L2 acquisition.

Ma et al. (2020) explored whether learners' motivational views mediate the association between foreign language achievement and teacher-student relationships with 1171 eighth graders in China. The findings revealed that teacher-student relationships were positively connected to foreign language achievement and that this relationship is partially mediated by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Remarkably, intrinsic motivation had a more significant mediating role than extrinsic motivation. In short, supportive teacher-student relationships can enhance learners' language ability by fostering their motivation, particularly intrinsic motivation.

Farrell et al. (2010) presented key findings from a systematic literature review. The review focused on the impact of teaching assistants or their equivalents on students' academic achievement, comparing measurements before and after TS intervention. The synthesis of results indicated that primary school students with recognized learning problems, especially in literacy, significantly improve academically with targeted TS. Nevertheless, studies involving more general TS, not specific to students with special problems, yield mixed results, suggesting that TS in mainstream classes may only boost some students' accomplishments.

In conclusion, a series of empirical studies  revealed reciprocal links between parental support and self-esteem in visually impaired adolescents (Yuan et al., 2023), the pivotal role of TS in enhancing academic resilience and performance (Pitzer & Skinner, 2017), and the mediating role of resilience and negative emotions in TS's impact on adolescent mental well-being (Guo et al., 2020). The research collectively stresses the significance of TS and its impacts on students' academic success and psychological well-being.

EFL learning presents distinctive challenges and dynamics. EFL learners often struggle with language barriers in non-native environments, making language acquisition a formidable task (Mohammed, 2018). These students face distinct psychological and academic challenges as they strive to gain proficiency in a new language. Language learning can be emotionally taxing as learners navigate cultural differences, adapt to unfamiliar teaching methods, and cope with the anxiety of communicating in a foreign tongue (Kara et al., 2017). These challenges can influence their self-esteem, resilience, and AE. Understanding how TS interacts with these EFL-specific challenges is vital for efficient learning outcomes as regards academic achievement.

In summary, the existing literature presents conclusive evidence regarding TS’s impact on various aspects of students' academic and psychosocial development, as observed in diverse contexts. However, a distinct gap emerges when considering the specific case of EFL learners. Despite the pivotal role of academic enhancement in shaping students' futures and society, EFL learners might encounter difficulties in reaching desired levels of success. To address this challenge, exploring the dynamic interaction between TS and critical psychological factors such as self-esteem, resilience, AE, and language achievement among EFL learners is essential. A holistic understanding of these dynamics is essential, especially within the setting of foreign language education. With this aim, this study investigates the effects of TS on EFL students' self-esteem, resilience, AE, and academic accomplishment. Although TS and its effects on students' academic and psychological results have been extensively studied in various educational contexts, there is still a gap regarding these dynamics in EFL learning situations. While existing research has examined the relationship between TS and overall academic and psychological health, EFL students' difficulties—such as overcoming cultural and linguistic barriers and the stress of learning a foreign language—indicate that they might have different needs and reactions to TS. There has not been substantial research on how TS might improve self-esteem, resiliency, AE, and language proficiency in broader EFL contexts (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2022). This oversight emphasizes the necessity of conducting focused research on adapting TS best to assist EFL learners in overcoming these difficulties in various contexts. By addressing the effect of TS on these psychological variables, the study aims to create supportive learning environments that address the specific needs of EFL learners, thereby improving their academic success and overall well-being in EFL settings.

To investigate the interplay between TS and the psychological variables, this current study has four key objectives: The first is to explore the impact of TS on the self-esteem of EFL learners. The second is to examine the effects of TS on resilience. The third is to assess the impact of TS on AE. The fourth is to explore how TS influences academic achievement. Therefore, the following questions are formed in a unified sense:

Research Question: Does TS have any effects on EFL learners' self-esteem, resilience, AE, and academic achievement?

Method

Design

Our study employed a pre-posttest design. Participants were randomly divided into two groups: one receiving TS interventions and the other with no intervention as a control group. Pretest assessments were used to establish baseline measures, with posttest assessments to evaluate the impacts of TS on EFL learners' self-esteem, resilience, AE, and academic achievement. This design enables a rigorous evaluation of the effectiveness of TS interventions.

Participants

The study's respondents were drawn from a language institute in Antalya, Turkey, comprising 250 learners. From this population, a random selection process identified 84 participants, who were then assigned to two distinct groups: an experimental group (EG) of 48 learners and a control group (CG) of 46 learners. The age range of the participants fell between 14 and 18 years old and their L1 was Turkish. None of the participants had prior exposure to English-speaking countries before the beginning of the research. Prior to the intervention, their English proficiency was assessed as B1 level (Allan, 2004) and eleven students who had an A2 level of English proficiency were excluded from the research. The students signed a written consent form before taking part in the investigation. Parental consent was obtained for learners under legal age.

Instruments

To comprehensively assess the impacts of TS on various facets of learners' academic and psychological well-being, four validated instruments were utilized. The first one was the self-esteem scale developed by Rosenberg (1965). It is a widely recognized tool renowned for its reliability and validity to assess self-esteem. This instrument was adopted because of its rigor in assessing self-esteem among individuals across different cultural backgrounds; therefore, it is suitable for the learner group in the current research. The second one was Davidson's (2018) AE scale, which was utilized to assess the participants’ level of AE and to provide insights into their overall engagement with the language learning process in academic settings. To evaluate resilience, Cassidy's (2016) academic resilience instrument, a recognized tool designed to capture the nuanced facets of resilience specific to the educational context, was used as the third instrument.

Furthermore, to meticulously evaluate the influences of TS on academic achievement, a multifaceted approach was adopted. Recognizing the local educational context, the researchers designed a teacher-made test tailored to the specific needs and curriculum of the participants, which was the fourth instrument used in the study. This test underwent a rigorous validation procedure, including applying the know-group technique, as delineated by Ary et al. (2019). In this validation process, the test was given to a group of very advanced language learners and the study’s participants at the pretest. The performance between the two groups differed significantly with advanced learners significantly outperforming the participants in the current research. Therefore, the validity of the scale was verified. The test had 30 items, including short-answer, fill-in-blanks, multiple-option, and open-ended questions. Its Cronbach alpha value was .849. Both the questionnaires and the validated teacher-made test were administered on two separate occasions: initially before and after the treatment, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of any changes in the measured variables.

Data Collection Procedures

In the CG, participants engaged in an offline learning mode, where they did not have direct access to the teacher. The teacher provided the study materials to this group, and the learners were responsible for self-study without direct interaction with the instructor. In contrast, the EG underwent a different approach, participating in online classes conducted through Google Meet. These online classes provided unrestricted access to the teacher throughout the sessions. Learners in the EG could interact with the instructor in real-time, fostering a dynamic learning environment.

The distribution of questionnaires was a meticulously executed process, carried out on both occasions –before the treatment and after the implementation. Questionnaires were administered to all participants in both the CG and EG. Respondents were supplied with the questionnaires in a standardized format and instructed to complete them individually.
In instances where clarification or guidance was needed, researchers were readily available to help, ensuring the accuracy and completeness of the questionnaire responses and instilling confidence in the research’s methodology.

A quantitative assessment approach was employed to measure language achievement. Specifically, a teacher-made test was designed, incorporating elements that aligned with the curriculum and learning aims of the research. This test was given to both groups, and its content was statistically validated to ensure its relevance and accuracy in assessing language achievement. By utilizing this teacher-made test, the researchers aimed to capture the participants' language proficiency, evaluating their language skills tailored to the research's specific learning context and objectives.

Data Analysis Procedures

We employed chi-square tests for each research question to study TS's impact on self-esteem, resilience, and AE. This statistical approach is adopted to analyze the categorical relationships between TS and these critical psychological variables. Additionally, to assess TS's influence on academic achievement, an independent-sample t-test was utilized. This analytical method facilitates the examination of potential differences in language achievement scores between the CG and EG, allowing us to determine the effectiveness of TS interventions on this specific outcome. The researchers aim to gain insights into TS’s role in shaping self-esteem, resilience, AE, and academic achievement among EFL learners by employing these statistical techniques.

Results

TS's Effect on Self-esteem

A chi-square was conducted to measure how TS might impact learners' self-esteem.

Table 1. Group * Self-esteem Pretest and Posttest Crosstabulation

Table 1 demonstrates that on the pretest, nine EG and seven CG learners had high self-esteem while the rest had low self-esteem. On the posttest, 31 EG and nine CG participants had high self-esteem after the intervention. The difference is found to be statistically significant.

Table 2. Chi-Square Tests of Self-esteem on Pretest and Posttest

Table 2 demonstrates that at 1 degree of freedom, the difference between the EG and CG was not significant regarding their self-esteem (df = 1, p > 0.05). Table 2 also illustrates that the difference between the learners from the EG and CG was significant at 1 degree of freedom on the posttest (df = 1, p = 0.001). It demonstrates that TS could facilitate EG learners' self-esteem. Furthermore, the effect size was found to be medium (Phi Cramer's
V = 0.455 (according to Cohen’s (1988) convention.

TS’s Impact on Resilience

A chi-square was conducted to measure how TS might impact learners' resilience.

Table 3. Group * Resilience Pretest and Posttest Crosstabulation

Table 3 shows that six learners from the EG and seven from the CG were resilient on the pretest, while the rest were not resilient. As for the posttest, Table 3 indicates that 26 learners from the EG and nine from the CG became resilient after the intervention, suggesting a significant difference across the groups.

Table 4. Chi-Square Tests of Resilience on Pretest and Posttest

Table 4 demonstrates that, at 1 degree of freedom, the difference between EG and CG was insignificant regarding resilience (df = 1, p > 0.05). Table 4 also illustrates that the difference between the learners in the EG and CG was significant at 1 degree of freedom on the posttest (df = 1, p = 0.001). This finding indicates that TS could facilitate EG learners' resilience with a medium effect size (Phi Cramer's V = 0.358).

TS's impact on AE

A chi-square was conducted to measure how TS might impact learners' AE.

Table 5. Group * AE Pretest and Posttest Crosstabulation

Table 5 shows that eight learners from the EG and five from the CG learners were joyful on the pretest while the rest were unjoyful. Furthermore, Table 5 indicates that 36 learners from the EG and nine from the CG were joyful after the intervention. This finding was found to be statistically significant as detailed in Table 6.

Table 6. Chi-Square Tests of AE on Pretest and Posttest

Table 6 demonstrates that at 1 degree of freedom, the difference between the EG and CG was not significant regarding their AE (df = 1, p > 0.05) on the pre-test. However, the difference between the scores of learners in the EG and CG was significant at 1 degree of freedom on the posttest (df = 1, p = 0.001). The effect size was found to be large (Phi Cramer's V = 0.555). This finding demonstrates that TS could facilitate EG learners' AE.

TS's Effect on Academic Achievement

Two t-tests were used to investigate TS’s effect on academic achievement and to explore differences between the two groups on two occasions (Pallant, 2020). Before conducting the statistical significance test, the normality assumption was checked and confirmed (p > 0.05).

Table 7. Independent Samples T-Test on Academic Achievement Pretest and Posttest

Table 7 reveals that both the EG and CG groups performed similarly on the pretest
(EG M = 3.47, SD = 1.729; CG M = 3.47, SD = 1.37). It also shows that the difference between the two groups was not significant on the pretest (F = 0.272, t = 0.003, df = 92. p > 0.05). As can be seen in Table 7, EG learners outperformed CG learners on the posttest of academic achievement (EG M = 11.00, SD = 5.271; CG M = 3.95, SD = 2.43). Moreover, the difference between the learners in the EG and CG was significant on the posttest (F = 24.276, t = 8.259, df = 92, p = 0.001). The effect size was also substantial (d = 0.425) (Cohen, 1988).
It indicates that TS enhanced EG learners' academic achievement.

In conclusion, the results show that TS significantly impacted EFL learners. Specifically, after the intervention, the EG exhibited increased self-esteem, resilience, and AE with medium to large effect sizes, as indicated by Cramer’s V values ranging from 0.358 to 0.555. Moreover, the EG significantly outperformed the CG in academic achievement with a large effect size (d=0.425).

Discussion

TS’s Impact on Self-esteem

The results revealed substantial constructive effects of TS on EFL learners' self-esteem.
It resonates with the theoretical underpinnings of SDT, which emphasizes the prominence of autonomy, relatedness, and competence in fostering optimal human development (Deci & Ryan, 1985). TS, particularly in the form of autonomy support, involvement, and structure, aligns with the principles of SDT. When teachers provide choices, clarity in expectations, and warm and supportive interactions, students experience cognitive and emotional assistance during their learning journey (Wang et al., 2023).

These findings highlight the profound impact teachers can have on students' self-perceptions. When students perceive that their teachers genuinely care about their learning progress, respect their autonomy, and create a supportive learning situation, they are more prone to cultivate a positive self-concept. This aligns with existing research showing how teacher-student interactions and support affect students' self-worth and feelings of competence (Yuan et al., 2023).

When comparing our findings on TS with those of Yuan et al. (2023) and Peng and Dai (2023), similarities have emerged in highlighting the positive impacts of TS on student development. Yuan et al. found reciprocal links between parental support and self-esteem in general while our study emphasizes the role of TS in enhancing self-esteem among EFL learners. Peng and Dai (2023) focused on left-behind children and showed that social support’s direct influence on social adaptation is mediated by self-esteem. These studies collectively stress the significance of support systems in promoting student well-being. However, they show variance in population and context, illustrating the nuanced nature of support sources and their effects.

TS’s Effect on Resilience

Another key finding is TS's positive effect on EFL learners' resilience. Resilience often presents learners with various challenges (Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000). The current study aligns with the literature emphasizing academic resilience's importance in overcoming obstacles in pursuing education goals (Morales & Trotman, 2004).

TS is a significant resource in enhancing students’ capacity to bounce back from setbacks and personal growth. When teachers offer warmth, resource dedication, comprehension, and reliability, students are better equipped to navigate the challenges inherent in language learning. These results highlight the critical role of teachers not only as instructors but also as sources of emotional and motivational support, especially for EFL learners facing additional language barriers (Hejazi & Sadoughi, 2023).

In comparing our findings on TS’s impact on resilience with those of Pitzer and Skinner (2017) and Guo et al. (2020), similar findings have emerged in recognizing TS’s positive influence on students’ psychological well-being. Pitzer and Skinner’s examination, grounded in SDT, highlights how TS is crucial in fostering motivational resilience and impacting students’ academic trajectories. Guo et al.’s study delved into the intricate interaction between TS, negative emotions, and resilience, revealing that TS not only lessens negative emotions but also enhances resilience, ultimately contributing to adolescent mental well-being. While these studies differ in focus and methodology, they underscore the significance of TS’s role in bolstering students’ psychological resilience and well-being.

TS’s Effect on AE

The consequences also indicate a constructive impact of TS on EFL learners' academic enjoyment. AE encompasses the pleasure and positive emotions from challenging educational activities (Pekrun et al., 2007). This aligns with Csikszentmihalyi's concept of flow, where individuals experience a sense of accomplishment and deep engagement in tasks that match their perceived abilities (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008).

Through providing autonomy, praise, and engaging activities, TS can create an optimal learning environment that fosters AE. When students feel that their teacher appreciates their hard work, offers engaging and pertinent content, and fosters a positive classroom environment, they are more inclined to find enjoyment in their learning journey. This finding highlights TS's role in promoting academic achievement and cultivating a positive learning experience.

Several similarities have become apparent when comparing our findings regarding TS’s influence on AE with those of Ma et al. (2021) and Hejazi and Sadoughi (2023). Ma et al. revealed that TS indirectly enhances reading enjoyment, which positively affects reading literacy. Similarly, Hejazi and Sadoughi emphasized the direct impact of TS on students’ grit in language learning, with enjoyment as a mediator. These results align with our conclusion that TS contributes to AE, potentially boosting learners’ persistence and interest. However, our research broadly extends this effect to EFL education, highlighting its relevance across various subjects and disciplines.

Effect of TS on Academic Achievement

Finally, the results demonstrate the significant impacts of TS on EFL learners' academic accomplishment. Academic achievement, which encompasses acquiring knowledge, skills, and effort invested in learning, is a fundamental goal of education (Darmuki et al., 2023). In an era marked by diverse student demographics and evolving pedagogical paradigms, the role of TS in academic success cannot be overstated.

The results support the idea that TS contributes to improved academic outcomes among EFL learners. Teachers' support for structure, autonomy, and involvement positively influences students' perceptions of competence, relatedness, and autonomy. These enhanced perceptions, in turn, motivate students to invest more effort in their studies, persist through challenges, and ultimately achieve higher levels of academic success. This aligns with the SDT's proposition that meeting the fundamental requirements of autonomy, relatedness, and competence leads to optimal functioning (Deci & Ryan, 1985).

The study extends beyond foreign language learning, unlike Ma et al. (2020), who focused on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in foreign language achievement. Additionally, Farrell et al. (2010) reviewed targeted students with learning difficulties, showing significant improvements with targeted support, while our study explored the broader context of TS in general education settings, suggesting diverse impacts of academic achievement due to diverse instructional contexts and student populations.

While our study reveals significant positive links between TS and various psychological and academic factors, it is paramount to acknowledge that establishing definitive causality is complex. Numerous unmeasured variables and external influences could contribute to the observed effects. While valuable for identifying relationships, the study’s cross-sectional design has not permitted the researchers to pinpoint direct cause-and-effect relationships.

Conclusion

This investigation into the relationship between TS and key psychological variables, including resilience, self-esteem, AE, and language development among EFL learners, provides insights into the intricate dynamics of language education. The current study's findings show that teachers play a critical role in shaping linguistic competencies and their students' emotional and motivational landscapes. Supportive teacher-student relationships, characterized by autonomy support, structure, involvement, and emotional encouragement, emerged as a central element in promoting psychological well-being and academic success. This study emphasizes the need for language educators to prioritize fostering positive learning environments that nurture students' resilience, bolster their self-esteem, enhance AE, and ultimately contribute to improved language achievement. Moreover, the results have broader implications for materials developers, syllabus creators, curriculum designers, and policymakers and they suggest integrating socio-emotional components into language learning materials, curricula, and policies, thus fostering a holistic and supportive educational ecosystem for EFL learners.

By acknowledging the interconnectedness of TS and psychological variables, stakeholders in language education can work collaboratively to boost the quality and usefulness of language learning experiences, ultimately empowering students to achieve excellent proficiency and thrive in their language learning journeys. The findings of our research have important implications for language educators involved in developing materials, designing syllabi, and creating curricula. It highlights the critical need to include elements that enhance TS and strengthen key psychological factors such as resilience, self-esteem, and academic enjoyment in teaching materials and curricula. Activities that improve teacher-student relationships and build conditions that foster independence are very helpful. These activities should specifically focus on the socio-emotional aspects that greatly impact students' motivation and success. In addition, it is crucial to construct teacher training and professional development programs that adequately equip educators with the required abilities to deliver successful task-based instruction in English in EFL contexts. These programs should promote the importance of autonomy, structured learning, emotional support, and communicative teaching methods that incorporate personalized support and the development of resilience. Moreover, these programs must enhance teachers' ability to understand and engage with other cultures, increase their ability to provide structured feedback, develop their abilities in assessing student performance, and promote their active involvement in professional learning communities.

When establishing educational rules and standards, policymakers should consider these results and give priority to creating professional opportunities that empower teachers to cultivate supportive learning environments. Furthermore, it is important to encourage the integration of socio-emotional learning elements into language training frameworks. This can result in improved language learning outcomes and enrich the whole educational experience for EFL students. Practical measures to include these socio-emotional learning elements might strengthen teacher training programs, broaden professional development opportunities, integrate new curricula, improve assessment and evaluation processes, and promote research and innovation. Language educators may promote a more enriching and holistic learning experience for EFL students by implementing these suggestions in their teaching environment, acknowledging the importance of students' psychological well-being and motivation in achieving success in language learning.

This research has a few drawbacks that point to directions for future research. Firstly, self-report measures were used, which may introduce subjectivity. Future research could be designed using mixed research methods to gain a deeper understanding of the effect of Ts on psychological variables. Secondly, our findings are context-specific, so further studies should explore TS in various educational settings and age groups to identify contextual variations. Additionally, delving into potential moderating factors and mediators could provide a deeper understanding of these relationships. In conclusion, a longitudinal approach would allow a deeper understanding of the temporal correlations between TS, psychological variables, and pedagogical progress.

Funding: This study is supported via funding from Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University Project Number (PSAU 2024 /R/1445).