Authors
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Islamic Republic of Iran
Abstract
Keywords
Main Subjects
Introduction
According to Traxler (2007), mobile
learning (m-learning) currently exploits
both handheld computers and mobile
telephones and other devices that draw on
the same set of functionalities. It seems
necessary to recognize that personal mobile
and wireless devices are now radically
transforming societal notions of discourse
and knowledge (Katz & Aakhus 2002).
Baron (2000) argues that "what has led to
the success of communication technology is
its convenience, marginal cost, speed of
transmission and flexibility" (p. 146). The
new channels of communication tend to
have more casual lexicon, to be less
carefully edited, and to assume a greater
degree of familiarity with the interlocutor."
Such facilities enrich a mutual experience,
communication with absent teachers or
families, and personal reflection or
reminiscing (Kindberg, Spasojevic, Fleck &
Sellen, 2005).
The value and even the relevance of
training illiterate populations to use new
information and communication
technologies are often questioned or
dismissed as unwarranted optimism
(Carney & Firpo, 2002). The
demystification of new mobile technologies
is supporting corporate training (Gayeski,
2002; Lundin & Magnusson, 2003;
Pasanen, 2003); thus, employing them in
spreading knowledge to make the
opportunities for illiterates and semi-illiterates to access learning contents can
result in more effective functioning in
society and a better quality of life. In this
way, even individuals who have never
learned to read can attain an acceptable
level of literacy with the one-on-one help of
a caring volunteer tutor (Bynum, 2011).
Informal style of language occurs in a wide
variety of situations in the speech of
illiterates. On the whole, the three pillars of
connectivity, mobility and productivity, as
driving features of wireless technology
(Althaus, 2011), pave the way for scaffolds
to support the adult learners in the process
of learning foreign language vocabulary
items, as activities provided in scaffolding
instruction are usually just beyond the level
of what the learner can do alone (Olson &
Pratt, 2000). The more capable other
provides the scaffolds so that the learner
can accomplish (with assistance) the tasks
that he or she could otherwise not complete.
Nevertheless, cell-phone, with pragmatic
(e.g., academic environments) and social
functions (e.g., interaction), is still a novelty
that has not, from the users' perspective,
become an everyday device with common
uses and functions (Salovaara, Helfenstein,
& Oulasvirta, 2011). Although mobile
technology is employed to address the
challenges in didactic material delivery and
supporting education where traditional
pedagogy would fail, how to develop
learning materials seems to be the issue of
the least importance.
Each language, on its forward movement
undergoes a process of change or
metamorphosis. Although not a linear
process -as many political, religious, social
and economic criteria may affect the
process- it can be claimed that it is a
movement toward simplification. For
example when one comes to English
language and looks at Shakespeare's texts
(1564-1616), he would face a lofty
language full of puns and metaphors, in
which reference to different referents are
intentionally postponed through a net of
dense images. This would automatically
enhance the illocutionary quality and results
in a poetic language which was hard to
digest even for ordinary people of his time.
But when he goes to Joseph Addison (1672-1719), he finds that Addison, as an essayist,
has got a style which is so "polished and
easy", that is able to catch ordinary people
(Abjadian, 2002). This shows a change in
the language style in less than a century. As
time passes, more simplicity in written
language is to come and the late 18th and
19th centuries' texts are known for the
insertion of much more subjectivity –
personal I is used – and a more fluid and
simple style that is very spontaneous, less
mechanical and to some extent loose is to
appear. Twentieth century language style
also becomes simpler and the
communicative and discoursal aspects will
come in center.
The current process of simplification
parallels such a trend of simplicity in
languages. With analysis of Iranian SMS
texts from 2002 onward, it could be noticed
that they get through the process of
simplification, that is the succinct feature of
today's SMS texts in comparison with their
old counterparts (with the average of 14
words in 2002, and average of six words in
2012) (Dahgan SMS System, 2012). The
trend indicates that citizens tend to favor
succinct messages by which is meant a
more complete entailment of the gist (i.e.,
simplicity orientation being in the
ascendancy). The pattern of changes is
depicted in Figure 1.
As pedagogical science seeks out iconic
representations to lend a sense of the
concrete to new concepts, using multimedia
technology, mobile learning makes it easier
to carry non-verbal elements to interweave
verbal mode; hence, academic discourse is
increasingly multi-modal, incorporating
various visual as well as verbal texts,
including photographs, diagrams, outputs of
imaging devices, and even cartoons (Myers,
2003).
Although especially in the case of
elementary learners applications of images
is nonetheless effective and can proliferate
in the context in relaying the information
more concisely, sometimes it can eliminate
a significant issue (i.e., communication of
the message) and endanger the task of
carrying over the notions to learners and
distract their attentions in the way that
images concentrate upon other issues
pictured, the gist taking the second place.
Preventing such heterogeneity, an image
must be designed in such a way that makes
it possible for learners to connect them
easily to the text. Rose (2001) introduces
such salient issues as technological,
compositional, and social which he believes
that taking them into consideration in the
production and distribution of images is
inevitable.
On the other hand, though different styles
of language can be used to communicate
the same idea, McCarthy (1991) points out
that clear understanding of writing is reliant
on not only what the author puts in it, but
also on what a reader brings to this process.
In this way, while thinking about the
purpose of pedagogy, material generators
should consider whether the language
required in didactic guidelines for
addressing learners during the course of
teaching a new language should be of a
formal or informal style.
Because the language of academic subjects
requires a high degree of reading and
writing ability that elementary learners of
English do not have, they experience
immense difficulties reading their textbooks
and understanding the vocabulary unique to
particular subjects. In this context,
scaffolding can facilitate the organization
and focus of students' research (McKenzie,
1999). Therefore, the question is how it is
possible to make it easy for foreign
language semi-illiterates to understand the
content out-and-out.
It is believed that the desire to communicate
in text is a vital step toward literacy, and
researchers have observed that young
people with poor literacy who would not
normally write messages are often
enthusiastic texters (Plant, 2001). Likewise,
Klas and Zaharieva (2004) suggest that "the
approach (an open approach for structuring
content for m-learning environments)
realized in joint Mobi-Learn project of
several institutes in Austria shows high
acceptance by students during an initial
pilot application" (p. 12). Attewell, Savill-Smith, and Douch (2009) after conducting
the MoleNET (contribution to m-learning
via mobile devices) project reported that
comparison of the retention data for nearly
5000 learners suggested an improvement in
retention rate of eight percent. Hashemi and
Azizinezhad (2012) reported that mobile
technology via integration of a learner-centered method contributed a great deal in
the success of Iranian learners in the
process of learning English as a foreign
language. As a consequence, this study
dealt with the way of applying the formal
and informal style guidelines on the
contents for teaching English vocabulary
items to convey the message to Iranian
adult learners. In fact, sentence-level
linguistic forms and vocabulary items of
guidelines on the contents or smaller scale
recourses for discourse, as Johnstone (2008)
defines, were investigated to see if
accommodating the language style of the
guidelines to learners' prior speech style
(formal vs. informal) as discourse strategy
can change them more sociable. Therefore,
glossing the materials, using informal
instruction, is the issue which is to be
pursued. Likewise, due to the importance of
reader's knowledge for clear comprehension
of the text, it seems indispensable to link
old information or familiar situations with
new knowledge through verbal and
nonverbal communication. As the scaffolds
facilitate a student's ability to build on prior
knowledge and internalize new information
(Van Der Stuyf, 2002), it is suitable to
design activities which offer just enough of
a scaffold for semi-illiterates to overcome
the gap in knowledge and skills (Ngeow &
Yoon, 2001).
Materials
Questionnaire. The questionnaire was
designed in a way that permits semi-illiterates not only to acquire insight into
what the new information technologies can
offer, but also give them the opportunity to
inform the researcher about their point of
view. To be understandable for the
participants making their marks, the
questionnaire was the Persian Likert type.
The majority of the questions included in
the questionnaire sought the background
information on learners' experience with
using mobile-phone, that is, ease of use,
ease of learning that makes a product
effective, as well as their opinions on the
frequency and the timing of the learning
content, namely, new English vocabulary
items, and asked perception questions on
their interests on m-learning; led to the
devise of a course syllabus for conducting
the study in a semester.
English Alphabet and Vocabulary Test
(pencil-and-paper test). This test was
conducted to document that adult semi-illiterates were familiar with English key
words (e.g., read, write, listen, word, etc.)
and they were able to go from one stage to a
higher stage of L2 learning. The test
consisted of 26 English alphabet letters, and
12 English key words being dictated to the
participants to write them down. Those who
showed at least the knowledge of 20 letters
and English word items were selected as the
target group. Its validity was confirmed by
three university instructors specialized in
teaching English as a foreign language
(TEFL). The test reliability was calculated
as 0.79.
Vocabulary Items. Words to be taught
were selected from English Time Two
(level two Rivers, Graham, Toyama &
Procter, 2008). It must be borne in mind that
using different modalities in the process of
teaching new vocabulary items establishes
both native and foreign language concepts
consequently, for each word item, the
following four types of representation were
fabricated:
I. First type: At the top, an informal style
guideline was provided and at the
bottom was the new English vocabulary
item with its Persian equivalent without
any image, that is, pre-modified input
as Pica, Young, and Doughty (1987)
defined.
II. Second type: In the middle, a visual
image was presented, at the top an
informal style guideline was provided,
and at the bottom was the English and
Persian equivalent of the existing
image, that is, pre-modified input.
III. Third type: At the top, formal style
guideline was provided and at the
bottom was the new English vocabulary
item with its Persian equivalent and
without any image.
IV. Fourth type: The middle contained a
visual image, at the top formal style
guideline was provided, and at the
bottom were the English and Persian
equivalents of the existing image,
namely, baseline input (ibid). Elliptical
structures often create a sense of
informality (Jalilifar, 2010); thus, this
type of structure was employed in
preprint informal directions on learning
materials.
The apparent characteristics of each type of
learning materials are depicted in Table 2.
Illiterates and semi-illiterates are citizens
who express themselves through informal
style of language when addressing different
audiences. In reality, they attempt to further
the learning by imitating an informal oral
style; so the features which characterize
their oral discourse were tried to be used in
preparing informal guidelines on the
contents to compare their effects on
learning new English vocabulary items with
formal style guidelines. Although familiar
words and grammars were used in
fabricating the informal style guidelines, on
the whole it is noteworthy to point out that
for composing both formal and informal
rubrics, the format was adjusted to the
English proficiency levels of adult learners.
In terms of case, all the informal guidelines
were prepared with lower case, as Crystal
(2001) puts forward that in informal style of
language there is "a strong tendency to use
lower-case everywhere" (p. 87).
Software Package- This software designed
in a way that first the contents were selected
for delivery, and then a new album was
created for the selected contents and the
album was named. In the end, the pictures
were optimized and uploaded to the data
bank for subsequent applications. Also, the
software has the functionality for
transferring and sharing contents and makes
it possible for other researchers to edit,
create, view and discuss the contents and
share albums. Through the medium of the
software, a researcher has full control over
who has access to the pictures.
Furthermore, the possibility to invite
learners with different levels of language
proficiency from every time is an aspect of
openness as it allows researchers to
accommodate application of the cell-phone
in the realm of pedagogy.
Test- A test should not be the sole criterion
on which the effectiveness of anything is
measured, but it is also an important one to
assess accomplishment of the objectives of
study on the part of the learners (Tabarrok,
2011). Also, the more elementary the level
of the testees, the greater the number of
lexical items that are associated with the
spoken modality (Jafarpur, 2002). On this
account, in this study testees were provided
with spoken directions. Using spoken
modality, 36 questions comprised of 12
multiple-choice questions (sub-test 2) and
24 recall questions in written and pictorial
formats (subtest 1, and subtest 3) were
prepared (Select the English equivalent for
the written Persian word, and select the
English equivalent for the displayed
picture). Within each subtest, all the
questions contributed equally to the final
score and the raw score was the number of
questions participants answered correctly.
The final scores on the subtests averaged
and rounded to the interval on the 0–36
score scale. Pearson correlation coefficient
was computed to obtain the reliability of the
sub-tests ratings for the two raters, namely,
the researchers. The intra-rater reliability
indices were 0.74, 0.82 and 0.84
respectively. Also, software designed in a
way that four types of materials were
included in each section. Test reliability
was calculated as 0.79. The validity was
also confirmed by three competent TEFL
experts (See Appendix A).
A sample consisting of different subtests for
the word item (ice-cream: ینتسب) is displayed
in Figure 3. Subtest one comprised a written
Persian word and a question in the spoken
modality format. Semi-illiterates would
write the English equivalent of the Persian
word item and would send it to the server
through the short message service (SMS),
where all the answers were saved. Subtest
two consisted of the same written Persian
word and a question in the spoken modality
format with multiple-choice answers. Semi-illiterates would select the correct answer
and would send it to the server via SMS.
Employing a picture instead of the written
form of the vocabulary was the
distinguished feature of subtest 3.
Procedure
Introductory Session. Recognizing the
difficulty that many semi-illiterates are
likely to experience, a very simple
introductory course was presented first in
Persian explaining the purpose and the
stages included in the study. Because adult
learners did not have a clear picture of what
they were supposed to learn, concrete
examples of how they should use the
learning content were provided and the
expectations of the activity to be performed
were clearly defined and modeled for them
(Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 2000). Also,
teaching word items commonly used in
guidelines on practicing materials to novice
learners of English is an inescapable issue.
This was done through song, drawing, and
writing during the first semester of teaching
learners English alphabet.
To see if the communication of simple
information in the guidelines was possible
or not, their reading, comprehending and
writing ability were assessed via conducting
a pencil-and-paper test, and they were rated
with a percentage of success in three areas
(materials, English alphabet and
vocabulary). On the basis of the results 36
English vocabulary items were selected to
teach in five weeks. Since the one-way,
unsolicited message from teachers to the
learners or push model, as Mellow (2005)
defines, was selected for deploying SMS,
semi-illiterates' preferences concerning the
time and the frequency of SMS texts were
taken into consideration in designing the
curriculum (See Appendix B).
Learning Phase. Sharing and annotating
content happened automatically during the
course; that is, transferring from data bank
to other phones enables immediate sharing
of pictures to practically anywhere the
recipients happen to be with their phones
without any disorder in their
telecommunication. In addition to manual
control of assigning the materials, the
systems could manipulate the information
that was to be distributed over the course to
learners.
In order to counterbalance the effect of the
order of presentation, a 4×4 Latin Square
(LS) design was employed. According to
Montgomery (1991), one of the frequent
uses of LS is to counterbalance the various
sequences in which the level of an
independent variable might take place. In
LS, each of the four digits, that is 1, 2, 3,
and 4, would appear just once in each row
and column. Figure 4 shows a 4×4 Latin
Square.
In this research project, the first six words
were thumbnailed to first participant in
type1, six words in type 2, then six words in
type 3, and finally six words in type 4. At
the same time, the second participant
received the first six words in type 2, six
words in type 3, then six words in type 4
and the six last vocabulary items in type 1.
Testing Phase. The test was administered
to assess learners' word recognition and
production. After one month training, the
semi-illiterate learners were put to the test.
They were asked to fulfill the test, a
mixture of three subtests, recognition (12
questions), written, and picture format test
(24 questions).
Results
The first question of the study addressed the
relationship between manner of presenting
guideline styles on instructional materials
(formal vs. informal style guideline) and the
performance of Iranian semi-illiterates as
L2 learners of English while learning
English vocabularies. The results clearly
indicated differences between the semi-illiterates' performances; that is, they
outperformed in the case of materials with
the informal guidelines (r= 0.76, p< 0.005)
glossed on them (Table 3).
Though there was a significant relationship
between semi-illiterates' performances and
guidelines in formal styles (r= 0.53, p<
0.005), they did better on the parts of
materials which were glossed with informal
styles guidelines. As shown in Table 4, the
shorter informal directions on learning
contents carried the impression that they
were easier to read and perceive for Iranian
semi-illiterates. In other words, in more
than (59.9% + 66.3% =126/2%/2= 63.1%)
of the task, learners did not perform well as
instructed formally. Such results report a
relationship between application of
informal and formal discourse features in
directions and the performance of adult
learners in the spelling test.
The second question sought the relationship
between the use of pictorial modality in
didactic materials and language learning.
As Table 5 shows, annotating the contents
with images contributes to making them
more communicative. Iranian adult semi-illiterates provided correct responses to the
questions directed to the materials delivered
with pictorial annotations; however, correct
answers oriented more towards the contents
that images functioned a complementary
role instead of duplicating the text; that is,
ensuing the refining and complementary
function of the image, difficulties of the
texts were eliminated and learning was
maximized.
However, deploying picture in providing
instructional materials to the learners
culminated into better results when they
were accompanied with guidelines of
formal styles (r= 0.67, p<0.005) rather than
guidelines of informal styles (r= 0.55,
p<0.005). In comparison with the effect of
picture on didactic materials, guideline
styles revealed a more important role in
learning outcome. Regarding the results
(Table 6) on deploying images- pictorial
annotation-in learning contents, it could be
inferred that to the extent that language
elements (in this study, vocabulary items)
are not comprehensible to the L2 learners,
they could be understood in virtue of the
attached pictures especially in the case of
materials glossed with formal style
guidelines.
Although semi-illiterates demonstrated
better performance in pictorial format test
(cued recall) than the recall one, their
performance on multiple-choice test was
better than on either of the other two types.
The result can be depicted as follows:
Recognition score > pictorial format score
> rectification score (Table 7)
Discussion and conclusion
Since most of the m-learning studies are
provided as the supplementary activities (to
what was taught to learners) and materials
are usually delivered to learners out of
educational settings, it is necessary to
design the materials in a way that they will
be in congruence with what a learner can do
independently, namely, mastery level (Ellis,
2008). In this way, learners are able to
develop or construct new understandings by
elaborating on their prior knowledge
through the support provided by more
capable others (e.g., teachers) via the
medium of facilities that wireless
technologies make accessible to them (e.g.,
short message services (SMS), multimedia
messaging services (MMS), internet
connection facilities, etc.).
In the present study, it was shown that
displaying text with informal style of
language and complementary image is a
case of coupling reading and viewing,
which supports the process of vocabulary
learning in the case of semi-illiterates.
Hence, it could be claimed that the degree
of difficulty primarily depends on the extent
to which the didactic materials style pattern
was similar to or different from learners'
daily communication style. Where the two
were identical, learning could take place
easily through concurrence of the styles, but
where they were different, learning
difficulty arose and errors resulting from
style differences occurred. Such non-concurrence of styles refunds the process of
foreign language learning.
The result that adult learners outperformed
in the case of new vocabularies on which
informal style guidelines provided could be
indicative of the homogeneity of this type
of style with the type that this group of
citizens applies in day-to-day
communication. In fact, the more
connections to the informal style make it
easier for adult semi-illiterates to reinforce
and orient greater meaning and
understanding to what they have learnt. In
other words, in this study, informal style
established a type of scaffold to facilitate
the learner's development, as Van Der Stuyf
(2002) defines. With such background, that
is, using informal speech style in
fabricating guidelines for semi-illiterates
and illiterates, material generator are able to
manipulate the content and make it easy to
understand. This finding is in line with the
results reported by Lehtonen, Koskinen and
Kurvinen (2003) that content in SMS
messages between friends is rarely
independent from previous communication.
However, this finding sounds a bit
counterproductive if compared with what
Leow (1997a) reported. He found that text
length but not text enhancement resulted in
higher comprehension scores while neither
type of input modification assisted
acquisition. Such differences may be
attributed to the low-ability of semi-illiterates
in this study.
At first glance, presenting the material in an
entirely visual and audio way seems the
rational way in teaching semi-illiterates,
The key, of course, was modifying contents
so they will be of benefit to learners with
almost zero reading and writing abilities or
formal schooling who enter from the milieu
of informal speech. However, despite the
fact that images are found to play a positive
and facilitative role in teaching new
materials to novice learners, it is the
complementary and not duplicated role of
the images which helps the learners to grasp
the gist of learning contents. Such result
thus obtained seems to bear testimony to
the claims that visual texts cannot be treated
as the equivalent of verbal utterances. Most
of us are better at analyzing verbal texts
than visual, but that is no reason to expect
them to conform to the terms and concepts
we have developed for different purposes
(Myers, 2003). Using such cues in
incorporating images into the content
prompts the learners to pursue the task of
learning English as a foreign language. As a
consequence, it could be claimed that, semi-illiterates' outperformance in the case of
spelling test related to the vocabulary items
cued with images could be attributed
presumably to the mnemonic power of the
image that makes them more graspable
(Sunga, 2011). Also, this result invokes
dual coding theory (DCT) suggested by
Paivio (1986), which upholds the idea that
different modalities combined together
present an optimal condition for
accommodating more channels of learning
simultaneously, thus increasing the
likelihood of learning materials.
According to Ko (1996), speech-like
features are typically claimed to result from
the temporal constraints of the medium.
Even though informal style directions
simplify the task, make it more manageable,
and let the teachers express a friendly
orientation towards the learners they
address (Pop, 2012), it is noteworthy to
point out that the informal style of
instruction is temporary, too. At the early
stages of language learning, learners'
interaction with more informal and familiar
styles or environment significantly impacts
their ways of thinking and interpreting
situations; however, as the learner's abilities
increase, the informal style guidelines
provided in the content are progressively
withdrawn. As a result, the learners are able
to master the concepts apart from
application of informal style of guidelines.
On the whole, informal pictorial cued
materials proved the best suggesting the
picture semi-illiterates engaged in relating it
to text might have contributed to their
performance.
This study presents another general pattern
emerging from the obtained data. The
higher scores of the recognition test in
almost all cases is also indicative of the fact
that recall tests are more challenging as the
learners need far more processing ability to
tackle them compared with recognition tests
representing receptive type of knowledge
(Richards & Schmidt, 2002; Cousin, 2010).
This study focused on L2 vocabulary
improvement by EFL semi-literate adult
learners at elementary level via m-learning.
Similar investigations may target the
enhancement of other aspects of non-native
language as well as different skills and sub-skills employing other modes of
technology-based learning. A study of this
kind could help L2 material designers to
incorporate technology-enhanced content
such as software album in devising more
attractive and challenging instructional
language materials.
)