Document Type : Research Article
Authors
1 PhD Candidate of Applied Linguistics, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
2 Professor of Linguistics, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
3 Professor of Applied Linguistics, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
Abstract
Keywords
Main Subjects
1. Introduction
The widespread availability of mobile wireless technologies and associated infrastructure
across nearly all sectors of education has led to a fertile proliferation of views and
perspectives for the implementation of these innovations to continuously revaluate the
approaches to pedagogy, both in the physical and virtual classroom settings (Cobcroft,
Towers, Smith, & Bruns, 2006). This trend has actually provided a unique platform to design
learning differently and to enhance students’ learning experience, allowing a flexible access
to education on a ubiquitous basis (Sharples, 2006). This shift in learning locations and
student access to information has thus enabled educators to incorporate the Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) in their syllabi to enhance learning adapted to the needs of
learners of the 21st century or digital natives as Prensky (2001) defines. In recent years, we
have witnessed a rapid increase in the number of educational institutions turning to ICT-mediated instruction to offer courses using ICT tools as supplementary or alternative teaching
and learning aids. (e.g., Crompton & Traxler, 2015; Hayati, Jalilifar, & Mashhadi, 2013,
Hegelheimer & Lee, 2012; McCrea, 2011; Pellerin, 2012; Taylor, 2013; Traxler & Kukulska-Hulme, 2016; Viana, 2015).
Among various forms of ICT tools, podcast- a portmanteau of the words iPod and
broadcast- as a series of multimedia files that allow broadcasting of multimedia files in
digital format in time with text (O’Bryan & Hegelheimer, 2007), in turn, vies for a place in
ICT undertakings in the field of teaching and learning. As one of the distinctive features of
podcasts containing a Real Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds, podcast episodes containing
content materials, among others, may be automatically pushed or downloaded (rather than
streamed) to subscribers’ personal computers or any other (mobile) digital audio players,
freeing users from the need to check and manually download newly available content.
With their unique features of convenience, simplicity, and accessibility combined with
their affordances to deliver audio as well as text, images, and video files, regardless of their
usual applications as entertainment tools, podcasts have been exploited in several
administrative as well as pedagogical practices (e.g., Kennedy et al, 2014; Lazzari, 2009;
Long & Fabry, 2011; Malushko, 2015; Popova & Edirisingha, 2010; Taylor & Clark, 2010;
Viana, 2015; Zelin & Baird, 2012)
For language learning and teaching, among other disciplines, this realization also holds
true. Language educators now have more options for teaching language to L2 learners.
Concrete examples show the globalized tendencies of the educators and practitioners around
the world and the power they exercise in utilizing new (mobile) technology in the framework
of L2 teaching (e.g., Daccord, 2013; Driscoll, 2011; Gawlik-Kobylińska & Poczekalewicz,
2011). Meanwhile, the use of podcasts, among other ICT-tools, to disseminate instructional
language materials has elicited considerable attention among colleges and universities, too
(e.g., Duke University, Middlebury College, & the University of Wisconsin). Among
different language skills and components, podcasting has been mainly exploited by a number
of scholars in training specific language skills, such as pronunciation (Knight, 2010; Lord,
2008; Powell, 2006), oral and aural skills (Abdous, Camarena, & Facer, 2009; Chan, Chi,
Chin, & Lin, 2011; Hawke, 2010; Hoven & Palalas, 2011), speaking and listening strategy
training (Ashton-Hay & Brookes, 2011; Cross, 2014; Li, 2012; Rahimi & Katal, 2012), and
reinforcing students’ vocabulary learning (Borgia, 2010; Putman & Kingsley, 2009).
Moreover, diverse affordances of podcasting have paved the way for its application for the
purpose of increasing students’ motivation (Bolliger, Supanakorn, & Boggs, 2010; Stanley,
2006), promoting intercultural exchanges and listening comprehension (Lee, 2009; McBride,
2009), developing pragmatic competence/awareness (Guikema, 2009), and supporting
learners with learning disabilities, and non-native learners in distance learning or blended
programs (Sloan, 2005; Walls, et al., 2010).
Other studies have probed into the flexibility and ubiquity aspects of learning language
via podcasts to integrate formal and extramural language resources providing learners with
samples of real speech and other authentic materials (Chinnery, 2006; Thorne & Payne,
2005). In the same way, podcast-mediated teaching and learning has been employed to
support course materials with supplemental podcasts to develop students’ proficiency in
English (Istanto, 2011; Lee & Chan, 2007; Stanley, 2006).
Such studies have mainly acknowledged podcasts potentiality to develop students’
language skills, especially in developing students’ speaking and listening skills. They have
also documented much evidence suggesting students’ positive perceptions and attitudes
towards using podcasts for language learning on desktop computers or portable mobile
devices in intra- or extramural settings.
However, further research seems indispensable to ensure a viable model or conceptual
framework for using ICT tools in teaching and learning practices on a large scale. In reality,
the success of ICT devices as educational tools in the learning process is highly dependent on
the extent to which it is incorporated into a pedagogically grounded theoretical framework.
This study, thus, intended to investigate how didactic digital multimedia platform, namely
supplementary podcasts, among other ICT tools, is grounded in the theoretical underpinning
of teaching and learning and how it comes into interaction with the learning of L2 skills and
subskills, in general, and vocabulary development, in particular.
2. Theoretical Underpinnings of the Study
Any relevant theory of teaching and learning needs to embrace contemporary accounts of the
practices and ontogeny of learning and also capture the dynamics of learning, especially the
considerable learning that is personally directed and happens outside the classroom, under
ICT-mediated environments. The efficacy of podcasting, among other ICT tools, in language
education has been acknowledged in both theory and practice (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007). A range
of theoretical perspectives addressing the use of educational podcasts as one of several digital
multimedia formats in language education is elaborated below.
2.1. Cognitive Theory of Multimodal Learning (CTML)
According to the Mayer’s (2005) Cognitive Theory of Multimodal Learning (CTML) which
examines how students manage different routes for processing multimodal didactic contents,
namely dual-channels assumption, each channel can deal with only a small amount of content
materials at a time; that is, limited capacity assumption, and meaning learning in turn
involves engaging in relevant cognitive processing.
Despite the narrow capacity of each channel, Clark and Mayer (2008) believe that
through providing diversified modalities, it is possible to establish new conditions for lodging
more didactic routes; in this fashion, the likelihood of learning materials can be boosted. In
addition, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning can explain how podcasts may serve as
a better study aid than other learning resources. The use of podcasts is deemed to cater better
to the needs of auditory learners, and also expose students with other learning style
preferences (visual, tactile, and/or kinesthetic) to learning through the auditory mode. More
precisely, the use of other sensory channels can avoid overloading of the visual channel
(Engelkamp & Zimmer, 1994) and help students better process and understand complex
materials (Paechter, 1993).
2.2. Cognitive Load Theory
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) (Sweller, 1994) focuses on the interaction between information
structure and Psychological Learning Process or PLP (Alavi & Leidner, 2001) in relation to
learning. It suggests that an individual’s information processing system consists of distinct
cognitive channels to process visual and verbal stimuli. In this respect, learning is achieved
by integrating information between such channels (Mayer, 2001). In effect, CLT proposes
that due to the narrow capacity of humans’ PLP, students may be inundated by the
information and, if the bulk of materials is not accurately managed, this will lead into
conditions where students are so encumbered by extra cognitive load. This cognitive overload
accordingly hinders the schema acquisition, later leading to underperformance (Sweller,
1988). Podcasting, however, could provide a solution to this limitation. Through exploiting
the potential didactic force of podcasts to provide opportunities to students so as to repeatedly
access content and directly control the speed and pace of the verbal and visual stimuli being
offered, students can adequately process content before subsequent information is presented
and lost, and thereby, decrease cognitive overload. This way, the change in performance
occurs because the content materials become gradually more familiar to students and the
cognitive properties of the materials are adjusted to the effect that it can be dealt with more
successfully by PLP.
An additional supporting point is the effect of repetitive situation feasible in podcast
lessons in which students have the opportunity to review the learning materials, not only
through written form (textbook), but via supplementary multimedia-based materials besides
audio-visual basic materials either in class or at home. In practice, the high frequency of
exposure can enhance the input and therefore facilitate learning (Richards, 2002).
2.3. Blended Teaching and Learning Method
The blended L2 teaching and learning method allows students to alternate between ICT-enhanced and printed experiences on the basis of their accessibility to make optimal use of
the media (Neuman, 2005). This method, however, is not just about tossing any technology
into the learning assortment, but about deciding on the preeminent learning supplying
alternatives, both technology-enhanced and more conventional (Kitchenham, 2011). In
practice, the blended method of teaching and learning is not an either-or conundrum, but a
proper portion of various teaching modes for purpose issue. This way, it moves the debate
away from false the dichotomy, that is, conventional versus ICT-enhanced learning method
and classroom-based versus nonclassroom-based modes of delivery which are not beneficial.
To be precise, in the blended teaching and learning the learning process is fueled by both
classroom- and nonclassroom-based teaching and learning. In view of that, "blended learning
promises to enhance student learning and provide teachers with unprecedented resources and
support" (Germain & McIsaac, 2014, p. 1). "With blended learning, the [technology] may
provide much of the learning fundamentals and students must be more self-regulated than in
a traditional model classroom, but the teacher still plays a vital [albeit different] role" (West,
2015, p. 1).
In essence, the blended method of L2 teaching and learning goes beyond the
assumption of complementarity of the nonformal manner of practicing and learning. The
activities that take place after the learning has been blended should be linked deeply with the
content materials that the students have been taught in the classroom, and success in these
activities should build upon and reinforce the learning that students have done in classroom.
Considering the distinctive features of formal and nonformal training, this method of teaching
and learning suggests that each medium’s physical characteristics, structures, and method of
representing content may add a new aspect to students’ knowledge and the means they use to
achieve knowledge (Neuman, 2005).
Meanwhile, as far as the podcast-mediated instruction is concerned, despite the
potential benefits and positive reactions supporting the use of multimodal podcasts for
(language) teaching and learning, the majority of such studies, however, were mainly small-scale descriptive undertakings focusing on technical issues of creating and distributing
podcasts, rather than adopting a methodical approach to understanding how the medium
affects the teaching and learning (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007). As with any novel technology,
including podcasts, educators need to evaluate the reasoning behind the use of it (Maag,
2006). The use of theoretical foundations will not only provide a rationale for using podcasts,
but also helps inform the pedagogy of using them.
The study is, thus, motivated by the issue that this recent technologically-supported
trend using educational podcasts, among other ICT affordances, can be adapted and
integrated in a pedagogically sound theoretical model or conceptual framework to support
teaching and learning English, in general, and teaching English vocabulary items, in
particular.
More precisely, this study capitalizes on the variegated flexible modalities (vs.
unimodality) and ubiquity aspects of podcasts to support language learning in tertiary
education and supplement in-class language resources and activities with outdoor review
podcasts providing students with supplementary and alternative perspectives on the contents
previously taught which, in turn, may broaden or deepen the student’s understanding and
exploration of topics and also further encourage students to develop autonomy or
independent learning outside the classroom. The three scenarios considered to investigate the
objectives of the present study are thus set as follows:
Self-study learning approach (Scenario I),
Conventional learning approach (Scenario II), and
Podcast-mediated blended learning approach (Scenario III).
Employing triangulation, the following research questions are accordingly formulated
to address the issue at hand:
1. What are the participants' general attitudes, experiences, and readiness towards ICT-based and blended L2 learning?
2. Are there any significant difference in students’ learning of vocabulary via the
podcast-mediated blended learning approach vis-à-vis the two other methods of
delivery, namely, conventional learning, and self-study learning approaches?
3. How do the participants perceive the learning scenarios for L2 vocabulary learning?
3. Method
3.1. Participants
Four hundred and forty seven undergraduate male and female students at Ahvaz Jundishapour
University of Medical Sciences were taken as population of the study. All the students had
already taken English for Students of Medicine as an obligatory reading course at that
juncture. To select the participants for the study, they were notified through an announcement
issued by the researchers inviting them to participate in the study. After registering the
volunteers, to account for their L2 vocabulary homogeneity, a Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT)
was administered to select the participants through their performance on the test (See
instrumentation, VLT). After scoring the test papers, 132 students who scored less than others
were singled out as those needing special treatment. Indeed, their performance on the
vocabulary test items which were sampled out from the collection of the teaching resources
showed that they required further education on the subject materials given than those who
outscored them. They were then randomly assigned to three groups to learn the intended
materials containing the same vocabulary items and expressions through three different
scenarios, namely the self-study, the conventional learning, and the podcast-mediated
learning during the hours the researchers announced. Formal arrangements regarding the
research locations and the regulation of the University’s Research Ethics Committee in terms
of ethical considerations of researching with the human participants were also carefully
sought for before embarking on the study.
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3.2. Instrumentation
Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT): To set the seal on the homogeneity of the participants and to
discern their current L2 vocabulary proficiency, a researcher-made VLT (see Appendix A)
was developed via utilizing a frequency-based corpus assembled from the most frequent
23947 L2 vocabulary items which were sampled out by submitting the collection of the
teaching resources, namely englishpod (©2008, Praxis Language Ltd.), intended to be taught
in the major study to a frequency analysis via Text Fixer Software (2014). In doing so, a 40-minute paper-based VLT consisting of 100 randomly selected word items from the corpus
with a total score of 100; that is, one score for each item, was prepared to be conducted in a
pilot phase before running the major study. After piloting the test items on 60 students from
the same population other than the major participants, item difficulty (ID) of each test item
was calculated and those items whose difficulty levels were between 0.3 and 0.8 were
considered appropriate as the ultimate VLT test items intended for the major phase of the
study. Thus, the items whose difficulty levels were too low or too high were removed from
the test. As far as content validity of the VLT was concerned, it was authenticated by four
TEFL experts. The experts were asked to rate the items on a five-point rating scale ranging
from 1-not important to 5-very important; to internally validate and examine the selected
items and its relevance to the research literature. The criterion for keeping the items in the
final questionnaire was based on the experts’ rating; that is, those items which were rated
below scale three by 50% of the experts were excluded. Criterion–related validity of the test
was also investigated by calculating the correlation coefficient between the researcher-made
VLT and a standardized VLT (α = 0.82) and it was found to be r = 0.65.
Attitude Questionnaire: To ascertain the best comparability of the three groups of the
participants in terms of their attitudes, experiences, and readiness towards taking part in an
ICT-based L2 learning study, they were invited to complete an attitude and readiness
questionnaire before conducting the major phase of the study. The survey consisted of 16
carefully prepared questions that were categorized into four sections. The first three sections,
namely, section A (ICT-based L2 learning), section B (Podcast-based L2 learning), and
section C (L2 learning in a blended scenario) included 14 items which were designed using
the 5-point Likert scales ranging from 5 (strongly agree) to 1 (strongly disagree). In the forth
section, another line of follow-up questioning (2 items) asked the participants in the third
group about the descriptive aspects such as the participants’ usage patterns of ICT tools, their
preferences regarding the frequency of the podcasts and also their practicing time. The
reliability of the questionnaire was calculated via piloting the questionnaire items on 60
students from the same population other than the major participants using Cronbach's alpha
and it was found to be 0.75. Its face validity was confirmed by four TEFL experts, as well.
Assessment (vocabulary tests): To see if the participants’ learning under different
treatments had improved, their achievements were formatively assessed through utilizing two
20-scale vocabulary tests on a weekly basis. In practice, the data for the assessment were
aggregated through ―studies of students’ performance over time and across settings, in
response to experimental treatments and manipulations, [and] didactic content relevance"
(Gipps, 1994, p. 61). Overall, 32 formative assessments, namely, two rounds of assessment in
each week were made from each group of participants’ performance. The reliability of the
tests, though they were professionally designed by www.englishpod.com (©2008, Praxis
Language Ltd), was computed through Cronbach's alpha and it was 0.78.
Interview Prompts: Finally, to answer the third research question regarding the
participants’ views on and perspectives about different scenarios of vocabulary learning,
participants from each group were invited via text messages to participate in an interview
session which was conducted by one of the researchers. This bimodal interview, including
face-to-face contact and multimedia messaging via WhatsApp social networking, was
conducted in Persian. Below are the interview prompts in English:
1. What are your greatest strengths/weaknesses in learning L2 vocabulary via the
particular learning scenario taken?
2. If you could alter one thing about the way the materials are taught, what would it be?
3. What instructional activities did you find useful?
4. Is there anything else educators need to do that would enrich the L2 learning
process?
Also, to observe and judge how well podcast-mediated learning scenario fitted in the
L2 learning processes, an extra item was merged into the interview items to debrief the
participants in the third group (i.e., podcast-mediated scenario).
5. How will the podcast-mediated learning platform improve your L2 proficiency?
3.3. Materials
Podcast Lessons Package: The sample podcasts intended to be taught were selected from
englishpod (©2008, Praxis Language Ltd), professionally designed to teach English lessons
to language learners. It provided about 400 practical lessons which were organized
thematically with mini-stories and dialogs contextualizing the vocabulary items in realistic
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and interesting situations such as business meetings, travel, daily life, social relations and
lifestyles, and so forth providing learners with cultural exposure to the target language. Each
lesson consisted of a short dialog accompanied by key and supplemental vocabulary items
along with their English definitions and sample sentences. Learning supports such as
podcasts’ transcripts and different exercises (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007) were also incorporated in
the podcast lesson package to enable learners to carry out different vocabulary activities in
various task types that were not easily reproducible in a spoken form, as diverse as matching
a list of words with their English definitions, sentence reordering, dictation as well as
multiple choice items. The variety of task types and exercises were expected to provide
students with elaborative rehearsal, probably leading to deeper processing. As an integral part
of each podcast lesson package, three audio files which read and expanded on the written
parts of the dialogues were also made available to students encouraging a multimodal
elaboration of the lessons. In keeping with the length of the research and limited coverage of
vocabularies in the specified time, namely, thirty-two 90-mintue sessions in an academic
semester, a total number of 32 podcast lessons among others were selected for the study on
the grounds of such factors as their relevance and appropriacy to the educational settings and
teachability criteria. Indeed, attempt was made to accommodate those lessons including
vocabulary items which were quite common in modern English, particularly in conversation
and also included those vocabulary items which dealt with a particular theme or were in
related functional areas.
Learning Management System (LMS): This system was commercially developed to
host and distribute course materials to the participants in the third scenario and also managed
what actually took place during the nonclassroom part of the blended module. More
specifically, through application of the LMS, the participants in the podcast-mediated blended
module were enabled to have access to the supplementary part of the teaching resources,
namely, the Pdf version of the lessons along with the elaborative audio files, seamlessly
integrated with the printed handouts of 32 English lessons in which vocabulary items were
contextualized in different short passages and dialogues including their definitions and
various sample sentences with a variety of exercises and task types. This management system
was indeed based upon nonhierarchical, networked ways of managing the learning sessions
enabling the students to access and download each podcast lesson at timed intervals, namely,
two lessons each week (on Saturdays and Wednesdays for sixteen consecutive weeks) using
the Real Simple Syndication (RSS) feed for its automatic downloading on their desired ICT
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tools as diverse as their PCs or mobile devices such as cell phones or multimedia players like
iPods.
3.4. Research Design and Procedure
3.4.1. Opening
In this step, the paper-based attitude and readiness questionnaire was given to the participants
to complete as instructed. This survey approach has often been exploited in ICT-based
projects by asking learners to provide information about how they know, like or use the
learning platforms (e.g., Thornton & Houser, 2004, 2005; Fozar & Kumar, 2007; Stockwell,
2008).
3.4.2. Treatment
After 32 podcast lessons were selected from englishpod, three different learning scenarios
were considered to teach L2 English vocabulary items to the participants in three different
groups throughout the first semester of academic years of 2015-2016. The scenarios used are
described as follows:
A. Scenario one (the self-study learning approach): As to the manner of teaching and
practicing in the first scenario, a printed handout of intended educational materials for each
lesson, including mini-stories and dialogs which was accompanied by key and supplemental
vocabulary items along with their English definitions, sample sentences, and different
vocabulary activities in various task types, was delivered to the participants urging them to
study lesson by lesson and practice at their own pace without attending classroom. It is worth
mentioning that the participants in this group attended two exam sessions weekly where they
could also receive the intended materials of each next lesson. In doing so, their vocabulary
learning progress was formatively assessed on two 20-scale tests in each week.
B. Scenario two (the conventional learning approach): In this scenario, teaching and
learning process was mostly limited to the classroom lectures as the major mode of teaching,
that is to say, the teaching sessions were conducted face-to-face, with the instructor teaching
the printed handouts of the same instructional contents and exercises, given to other two
groups of students, via lectures and facilitating the students’ work in class by asking the
participants to practice and complete the exercises and task types.
In essence, available dialogues and various exercises in each lesson were skillfully
exploited in order to encourage contextual learning of the vocabulary items. Throughout the
contextual learning of vocabularies, vocabulary learning strategies of using context clues to
define words, defining words using synonyms or antonyms, examining shades of meaning of
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words, creating a visual representation of a word, using affixes or roots to define word items,
and making connections to new items allow the reader to repeatedly practice and retain new
vocabulary (Cecil & Gipe, 2009).
To provide the participants with elaborative rehearsal, they were encouraged to
complete various task types such as role play, matching a list of words with their English
definitions, sentence re-ordering, dictation, and multiple-choice items. In addition, to
nonformally assess the understanding of definitions and vocabulary-related content
introduced in class and to supplement the contextual learning of definitions, each week the
students were also expected to write vocabulary cards, which included definitions of
vocabulary items in their own words and sentences that featured the word in context (Juel &
Deffes, 2004). These vocabulary cards were maintained in individual student binders and
used for review and reference within demonstrations and formative evaluations. Throughout
the week, the students viewed and performed role play demonstrations of the ideas and
concepts associated with the vocabulary items or with visual aids to provide interconnections
between the concepts and vocabulary items. The ordering of these activities as well as the
detail of each operation varied from one passage to another, both to avoid monotony and to
facilitate assimilation of the word items (Hayati, Jalilifar & Mashhadi, 2013).
As far as assessment for this group is concerned, its participants took part in two exam
sessions weekly which were administered at the beginning of each new teaching session
typically held after finishing each previous lesson.
C. Scenario three (the podcast-mediated blended leaning approach)
In this blended scenario, each session was developed to have up to two rounds, namely
classroom and nonclassroom. In other words, the blended scenario was partly classroom- and
partly nonclassroom-based, partly a matter of teaching and practicing in the classroom and
partly of conducting nonformal practicing and review outside of the classroom. For the first
round in the classroom, the teacher taught participants the printed handouts of the
instructional materials, similar to those of other two groups of students, lesson by lesson via
face-to-face lecturing and then asked participants to practice the exercises and task types. In
this round, using handouts in classroom along with the podcasts designed for outside
classroom practice and review was actually intended to provide some form of scaffolding and
differentiation for learners with other principal perceptual styles, particularly those with a
preference for visual and text-based learning materials such as textbooks and worksheets
(Chan, Chen, & Döpel, 2011).
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On the other hand, the podcast-based practicing, as complementary to mainstream L2
English vocabulary instruction and practice in the classroom, was commonly employed at the
second round of the blended course. In this round, which was implemented in the extramural
situation, the students were indeed expected to register and log in to the LMS, where
automatic download of each podcast lesson was provided in spaced intervals through RSS
feed on their desired ICT-based tools, urging them to regular interval study (Thornton &
Houser, 2001) of the supplementary part of the teaching resources closely integrated with the
course content. That is, to supplement the limited input students typically receive in
classroom hours, such listening activities via podcasts encouraged students not only to
recapitulate the intended instructional contents, but also to commit them to memory by
recurring exposure to the sound files intra- or extramurally in a more self-directed manner
(O’Bryan & Hegelheimer, 2009).
More precisely, students who have the technology at their disposal could independently
study and review podcasts and supplementary materials to build on their classroom learning
or catch up if they missed a lecture, whether at home, on the move, or in intramural settings.
It is also worth mentioning that the LMS created a profile of each learner and automatically
gathers all the students' login information and podcast access in the second round of the
blended module to the very final stage for later analysis. Assessment for this group was
similar to that of the other two groups of learners (i.e., one 20-scale assessment for each
lesson which was carried out at the beginning of the next session for teaching the new
lesson).
In the end of the course, nine high-scoring as well as low- and medium-scoring students
from the three groups were selected to be interviewed. This interview was conducted by one
of the researchers in 20 minutes for each respondent (see Appendix B for the gist of the
selected respondents' answers).
4. Results
Data collected from the participants’ performance in the formative assessments over the
course period as well as their responses to the items of the attitude questionnaire and focus-group interview were analyzed as follows:
4.1 The analysis of the results from the attitude questionnaire
To answer the first research question, the participants' general attitudes, experience, and
readiness towards taking part in an ICT-based L2 learning study were investigated before
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embarking on the major phase of the study. The majority of the participants generally
believed that diverse ICT affordances would help them learn L2 better (q. 1). In a similar
vein, as regards the use of ICT technology for L2 learning, more than half (67%) of the
participants gave the green light to its integration into the mainstream education (q. 2). Just
the same number of participants (67%) reported that they are interested in using ICT-mediated instruction for the purpose of L2 vocabulary learning regularly (q. 3). However, a
few participants (20.6%) were inclined to learn L2 only in the ICT-based scenario (q. 4).
Seventy six participants were in agreement when it came to items 5 and 6 which inquired
about using supplemental podcast for the purpose of L2 vocabulary learning, namely podcast-mediated learning, and its motivational aspects (q. 5 & q. 6). Sixty two percent of the
favorable answers was observed for utilizing podcast-mediated practicing as a medium for
reviewing instructional contents instead of employing conventional medium (e.g., paper &
pencil) for this purpose (q. 7).
About 58 percent of the participants believed that integrating podcasts into the process
of practicing L2 vocabulary items can encourage them to do more practice extramurally and
help a better retrieval of already learned vocabulary (q. 8). As to the ninth question, more
than half (61%) of the participants believed that podcast-mediated practicing can offer great
potential to address a broader range of students’ L2 learning problems. Sixty six percent of
the participants’ answers were positive to the tenth question (q. 10) that probed their
perception of the extent multimodal materials help them apply the learned contents to the
real-world situation.
In items 11 and 12 where the participants were asked about using blended method of
vocabulary teaching and learning, they were in the opinion that in the blended language
learning scenarios, opportunities for language learning are supplemented with nonformal
practices in extramural settings (q. 11 & q. 12). As to their answers to the thirteenth question
(q. 13), they thought that the blended method of teaching and learning would endow students
with more active role in different didactic circumstances carefully developed to support face-to-face instruction with nonformal practices. The participants who believed that establishing
multimodal practicing and learning situations prevents the abrupt substitution of teachers
with ICT-based instruction were in the majority; that is supplementary as well as
complementary role of ICT in the blended module (q. 14). They maintained that blended L2
learning can provide a broader range of details about the instructional contents. Details about
the participants’ attitude towards the items of the attitude questionnaire are displayed in the
first part of Table 1.
Table 1. Overall Analysis of the Participants’ Attitudes towards the Items of the Questionnaire (continued)
To specify the time lag for practicing the extramural learning activities (q. 15 & q. 16)
and integrating the pull mode of content delivery along with the push mode of delivery, there
was an approval among 87 percent of the participants on receiving the materials following a
predefined time schedule. As to the (probable) practice of the materials in the extramural
situations on the prespecified time lags, it was found that the number of the participants who
gave consent for practicing the learning contents in the late afternoon was in great majority
(i.e., 73.6) (Table 1, Continued).
Table 1. (Continued)
4.2 The analysis of the difference between the participants’ performance in the
instructional scenarios
To address the second research question regarding the comparative impact of employing
different scenarios of teaching and learning on the participants’ L2 vocabulary learning, the
second stage of data analysis was performed. For the analysis of the garnered data over 32
assessment sessions for each group of learners, the descriptive statistics (mean scores, and
standard deviations), Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and Scheffe Post-Hoc test were used.
Table 2 demonstrates the descriptive statistics, the mean scores, and the standard
deviations of all three groups of learners. As Table 2 indicates, the mean score of the
participants in the third group who received podcast-mediated blended instruction was higher
than those of the other two groups.
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics of the Participants' Performance in all three Groups
Note. 1 = Self-study group; 2 = Conventional group; 3 = Blended group. N = Number of the participants; SD =
Standard Deviation.
To determine whether or not there were significant differences between the mean scores
obtained from different instruction modes, which in turn can reveal if one type of instruction
resulted in different degrees of learning, analysis of variance was administered. As is shown
in Table 3, the mean scores of three groups differed significantly from each other and, thus,
the learning outcome was accordingly different in each group.
Table 3. The Analysis of Variance Results of the Three Instruction Modes in the Groups
Note. df = degree of freedom.
Subsequently, a Scheffe test followed to make multiple comparisons between the three
instructional modes offered so as to determine which of them appeared more effective. As
depicted in Table 4, significant differences were identified between the mean scores of the
podcast-mediated blended group and those of the conventional learning group (p = 0.017,
mean difference = 2.27). When compared, the mean score of the podcast-mediated blended
group also differed significantly from that of the self-study group (p = 0.001, mean difference
= 4.45). Furthermore, significant differences were located between the mean score of the
conventional learning group relative to that of the self-study group (p = 0.023, mean
difference = 2.18). Thus, we reasonably decided that significant differences existed between
the three instructional modes in terms of their efficacy for teaching English vocabulary items,
i.e., the podcast-mediated blended platform was the most effective instruction mode. In the
same way, the self-study group acquired the lowest degree of significance compared with the
other two groups.
The results of the multiple comparisons of all the three groups in the Scheffe test are
illustrated in Table 4.
Table 4. The Multiple Comparisons between the Strategies in the Scheffe Test
5. Discussion and Conclusion
This study attempted to discern how different instruction modes came into interaction with
learning the L2 English vocabulary items in tertiary education for undergraduate students
majoring in Medical Sciences at Ahvaz Joundishapour University of Medical Sciences. The
results acknowledged podcasts potentiality to develop learners’ language skills, especially L2
English vocabulary learning. They have also documented much evidence suggesting learners’
positive attitudes towards using podcast, as a feasible and promising medium, in language
teaching and learning practices on desktop computers or mobile devices in intra- or
extramural settings, as it opened up possibilities of accessing the material on a ubiquitous
basis. For the most part, comparison of the participants’ performance in the initial sessions of
the course and their performance towards the end of the course as well as across the triple
scenarios indicated that the participants in the third group outscored their counterparts in the
other two groups after practicing the contents via blended method of L2 vocabulary learning,
which, in turn, implies the facilitative role of extramural practicing in the blended module of
L2 learning using the supplemental podcasts. Podcasting, as a multimodal delivery platform,
provided learners in the third group simultaneously with audio stimuli (e.g., narration) and
visual content. Based on Mayer’s (2005) Cognitive Theory of Multimodal Learning (CTML)
and supporting evidence, the added interactive multimodal dimension of podcasts in the
blended module allowed for a diverse range of learning skills and opportunities giving the
students more contextual and linguistic information than common classroom practicing could
provide. Therefore, it is deemed that it could improve student learning over other learning
resources, such as textbooks, notes taken from class lectures, or even PowerPoint slides. This
finding has already been affirmed by Dziuban, Hartman and Moskal (2004). They concluded
that "blended learning should be viewed as a pedagogical approach that combines the
effectiveness opportunities of the classroom with the technologically enhanced active
learning possibilities of the [virtual] environment" (p. 3).
Along these lines, the gathered data corroborated the roles that the supplemental
podcasts played in the blended module of L2 vocabulary learning as they enhanced the rate
and ease of L2 vocabulary learning. The findings revealed that those students who were
receiving the podcasts on spaced intervals were prodded to study the materials more often
than their counterparts on the other two groups. Such multimodal activities via supplemental
podcasts encouraged students not only to recapitulate the intended instructional contents, but
also to commit them to memory by recurring exposure to the sound files intra- or
extramurally in a more self-directed manner (O’Bryan & Hegelheimer, 2009).
This is, in turn, a testimony to the fact that positive relationships can be identified
between the uses of instructional technology and the participants' engagement and learning
outcomes as it forged close bond between the classroom and nonclassroom activities. The
result is congruent with the Ellis' (2008) opinion regarding application of ICT for the purpose
of teaching and learning L2. Ellis (2008) gives special importance to the need for employing
variegated tools to motivate learners in the learning process. He emphasized that "providing
learners with incentive may aid learning by increasing the time learners spend [practicing]"
(p. 628). Moreover, the results may account for the participants’ underperformance in the
self-study and conventional groups, where practicing was done through only one medium. In
fact, in such unimodal learning situations, students are often inundated by large amount of
information to the effect that they are often overwhelmed by the presence of a huge bulk of
new information. This result is also in line with the Dual Coding Theory (DCT) proposed by
Paivio (1986). According to this theory, employing diversified modalities blended together
presents a situation for housing more routes of learning concurrently, thus increasing the
chance of learning multimodal instructional materials. In turn, the blended teaching and
learning method emerged as a suitable platform for using podcasts for the purpose of L2
pedagogy. Along these lines, the most important findings in this study bear similarity to the
researchers’ proposition that outdoor context of practicing, namely extramural practicing,
should be intimately related to instructional contents taught in classroom settings.
In conclusion, the findings also revealed that the favorable effect of podcasting on the
participants’ performance is not just due to the influence of podcast per se; for instance,
examining the questionnaire and interview disclosed that the participants’ virtual world
expertise, in turn, made their engagement easier. In other words, the results disclosed that
manner of practicing, types of practices, and the participants’ perception of the learning
condition bear directly on the participants’ performance. On the whole, the idea of ICT-mediated instruction is a multidimensional issue and despite the growing interest in the
application of digital technology and its affordances in education, there are still some
technical as well as administrative difficulties for their true integration into educational
mainstream. More qualitative studies would not only verify the themes noted in this research
but also could reveal emerging themes not present or not adequately touched in our study. It
would be also advisable to devote more research and study to such issues as individual
differences like gender, class standing and prior experience with blended courses so as to
establish a purposeful match of strategy and technology and also to ensure more viable
research-based strategies across different types of instruction in blended models.